 Introduction
Notwithstanding the controversy over the puppets being the possible source of origin of drama in India, there is no doubt that the puppets have great antiquity and the tradition continues unbroken. There are metaphorical references to the puppets in the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. There is also a mention of puppets in early Buddhist texts. The two epics, Buddhist text and early works like Kamasutra and Arthshashtra are full of terms denoting puppets, and there are metaphorical references to puppets.
Itinerant performers, epic reciters, story-tellers, picture-showmen, clowns and, above all puppeteers, combining the skill of all of them became increasingly popular with the emergence of popular theatre from the 10th century onward after the breakdown of the classical tradition. Medieval poetic works referring to the popular entertainments of their times invariably mention puppets, and denounce the fact that there was always larger audience for a puppet show than for a religious discourse. Metaphorical use of puppets is generally the first reference to the puppets in all traditions. "God as puppeteer and man as puppet" is the most common metaphor used interculturally to explain man's destiny in this world.
Since the puppets were considered as icons representing gods and heroes, they enjoyed a special position among the medieval entertainers when the streets were full of festivity and fairs and festivals generated great performances activity. The puppet theatre continued to be equal partner of human theatre in providing entertainment till the beginning of this century when the cinema and later television took away its audience forcing puppeteers to take to other vocations.
The puppeteers being itinerant artists, were always there in the village markets, fairs on the occasions of civic and religious festivals and important events in the family of the householder. Unscheduled visit by a puppet troupe was always welcomed by the village community and to the house of the jajaman, that is, patron. Presenting the stories of gods and epic heroes and the recitation of great epic poetry, puppet performances have been for the people with 'floating' cultural texts. The performances have also acted as strengthening of religious and social values.
Some Perspectives
The puppets have a broad social base and cast a wide net. They have great absorbing capacity and keep incorporating new thematic and textual material drawn from social life, customs and beliefs. They also present an authentic portrait of the society at different periods of its history. This makes them an important social document as well as a cultural text. The socio-cultural perspective on the puppet tradition awaits the attention of the sociologists and anthropologists and of the scholars of the puppet traditions.
The puppet performances are closely associated with the religious and ceremonial events and temple festivals. Performances are also sponsored for the fulfillment of a vow, thanks giving on child birth, appeasement of the gods on the occasion of marriage, welfare of the community etc. Kerala shadow puppets have pronounced ritualistic context and are performed only in the Bhagavati temples in the play-house built in the compound of the temple. Performances itself is framed by ceremonial and ritual observances, singing of benedictory songs, offerings made to the gods, concluding ritualistic procedures, and singing of auspicious verse.
Puppet tradition is an integral part of the performance tradition of India and, in spite of its decline in recent years, it forms an important segment of contemporary theatrical activity. Symbolically transforming the patterns of human experiences, puppets have the same importance in giving meaning and beauty to life as many other forms of artistic expression-dance, song, ritual, sculpture and painting.
The puppet performances have been an important traditional media and the puppeteer a most effective communicator both of the traditional lore and contemporary scenario. Some of the communicative means employed in puppet performances are icons, story, speech and music. It is because of this communicative power that puppets have not only survived the intrusion of the mass media in their world, but have meaningfully supplemented its message and given it a more personalized character. Widespread and effective use of puppetry by the government publicity units has amply proved this.
In many countries puppets have brought in variety and have enriched T.V. programs and have been used both for instruction and entertainment. For instance, in Japan and Indonesia, shows a traditional puppetry are telecast regularly to the delight of the viewers. Such an interaction between a modern and traditional media of visual narration has benefited the both. Several European countries have given due place to modern puppetry in their T.V. programs. It is regrettable that in India with such an ancient and rich puppet tradition, Doordarshan has not shown interest in puppet, neither traditional nor modern. Their use in television would have given a fillip to and encouraged experimental work. Small screen is ideally suited for the projection of translucent leather figures of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Puppets and Live Performances
The two performance traditions-puppets and 'live' theatre have co-existed for over two thousand years in a relationship of lively interaction and mutual exchange. They have freely shared story and textual material, music, costume and other elements and conventions of performance. Several structural elements and features of performance such as preliminaries, concluding auspicious verse, and alternation of dramatic and narrative material, and of spoken and recited or sung passages are common to the both. Similarly scheme of conventional make-up following character-types and headdress are also common.
 Glove puppets of Kerala called Pava lootu (doll dance) have facial colour scheme similar to the codified make-up of Kathakali actors and the figures have same costume. String puppets of Karnataka called Yakshagan puppets have the facial colour, headdress costume and jewelry as Yakshagan actors. The group of musicians in the puppet and live performance are interchangeable. Many actors can also manipulate puppets. For a foreign tour, a Yakshagan group is so formed that it gives both live performances as well as with string puppets. In West Bengal, the rod puppets, called Putul Nach (doll dance) have the same costume as that of the traditional Jatra form of the state.
In Andhra Pradesh, sharing of common performance material and features between the two traditions is so complete that some groups perform with the shadow puppets and give a live performance of the same play, if so desired by the sponsors. The puppeteer who specializes in manipulating certain character-type of puppet, also specializes in performing the same role type.
In recent years some interesting theatre work has been done in Poland where mannequins, puppets, figures and marionettes have appeared together with live actors and existed on equal terms with them. In New York, USA, the famous Bread and Puppet Theatre has been doing such productions under the direction of Peter Schumann since 1962.
Schumann rarely use the marionettes or hand puppets that we associated with traditional puppetry. He prefers instead either face masks or giant puppets that can completely enclose a performer. The mask can be worn by itself or in conjuction with a specific costume. The giant puppets, which range from 8 feet to 20 feet in height, usually consist of a puppet head on top of long robes that completely conceal the performer; they are like gigantic hand puppets with a whole person inside them rather than just a hand. All of these puppets and masks help create a link between sculpture and theatre.
Kartnataka Figures
In Karnataka, figures of gods and heroes are much larger than those of the ordinary men. Various traditional attributes, symbols and hand props for gods, heroes, nobles and social status and vocation. Also, gods and heroes with bow and arrows in their hands sit framed in leather puppets on chariots and palanquins in decorative foliage under the pavilions with umbrellas held by attendants.
Rich emotional content and expressiveness of the Karnataka figures in another noteworthy figure. It is strongly conveyed by colour, line, cutting and incising. While frenzy, concern, grief are expressed by through a calm rhythmic treatment. The figure of sorrowful Sita sitting in Ashok garden in Ravana's captivity with her head down-cast under a tree, which also serves as a frames to the figure, intensely express her grief and evokes sympathy.
Following the pictorial tradition, certain aesthetic principles and conventions are followed in making the puppets in all the regional shadow puppet traditions. Both in Andhra and Karnataka traditions the male heroes are of the plump size with larger stomach, broad chest and wide shoulders, fat legs and arms. The feminine ideals following the sculptural tradition of the region emphasize voluptuous breasts, narrow waist and broad hips. An interesting convention of pictorial tradition followed in the composite figures is that heroes and the major characters are shown on a higher tier and the minor characters on the lower tier. A figure representing Ravana and his court may have as many as five tiers.
All the archetype four forms of puppets are found in India: they are hand or glove puppets, rod puppets, string and leather or shadow puppets.
Puppets and the Ramayana
 In the spread and popularity of the Ramayana through the oral tradition, puppets have played an important role. It is interesting to note that the two main elements of the epic tradition namely recitation and storytelling are also the main features of the art of the puppetry and their performance structure has a strong preference for storytelling.
The Ramayana is main source for the story and textual material in all the puppet traditions. While the great Tamil Ramayana by Kamban (12th century) forms the main text for the Kerala shadow puppets, Ranganath's Ramayana in Telugu (16th century) provide the textual material to the Andhra shadow puppets. It was especially written for the puppets. Oriya Vichitra Ramayana of Vishwanath Kuntia is used in the shadow puppets of Orissa.
Some of the popular Ramayana episodes performed are: Sita Kalyanam, (Marriage of Sita), Vibhishan Pattabhishekam (Coronation of Vibhishan), Bali-Sugriv Yuddha (The fight between Bali and Sugriv), Lava-Kush episode, Sunderkand, Lanka Dahan (Burning of Lanka), Lakshman Moorchha (Fainting of Lakshman), Indrajit Maran (Death of Indrajit), Ram-Ravana Yuddha (Fight between Ram and Ravana) etc. Sunderkand which deals with the most popular of the Ramayan episodes.
Glove Puppets
The hand or glove puppets are prevalent in Orissa and Kerala. Till the 1930s it was also prevalent in Uttar Pradesh by the name Gulabo-Sitabo, the two type characters presenting domestic quarrel between the wives of elder and younger brothers.
 Orissa's glove puppets are called Kundhei-nach (Kundei = doll + nach =dance). The show is presented by two puppeteers each wearing puppet - one representing Krishna and the other Radha. Krishna-Radha theme is widely performed and treated in pictorial arts in Orissa. One the two puppeteers sings and also plays on the dhol (folk drum). While manipulating the puppet figure, he occasionally beats the other face of the drum with the hand wearing the puppet.
Kerala's glove puppets because of their similarity with Kathakali actors, is also called Pava-Kathakali. Pava-Koothu is so influenced by Kathakali that the figures are carved in the likeness of Kathakali live actors with similar headdress, facial make-up and costume. Also, abridged Kathakali plays are performed by three to four puppeteers who are in full view of the audience.
Rod Puppets
Traditional rod puppets are foundd only in Orissa and West Bengal. In both Tamil Nadu and Karnataka there is a puppet form which uses both string and rods and is a kind of mixed form. Rods are attached to the hands of the puppets. Manipulation is from above like that of the string puppets.
 Orissa rod puppet is a simpler affair called Kathikundhei-nach (rod-doll dance). Puppets are 12 to 18 inches in height and puppeteers perform sitting manipulating the puppets from below. They perform some Ramayan stories, and the story of Durga killing the demon Mahisha.
The West Bengal rod puppets called Putul-nach (Putul = puppet + nach = dance) is more developed and ahs a living tradition. In this form, episodes from the Ramayana and local legends like Sati Behula and Mansa Devi are performed. Generally, the play scripts of the popular theatre of the state, Jatra, are taken and suitably adapted for performance. The puppet figures are about 3.5 to 4 feet in height and adorned in Jatra costume. The performance, with a loud orchestral music, has a heightened pitch.
String Puppets
 The tradition of string puppets is wide-spread and has great range and variety in form the techniques of manipulation. It is prevalent in Rajastahn by the name Kathputli (wooden doll). In this form puppet figures are about one and half feet in height and carved from a single block of wood. Arms and hands are made of stuffed rags. The puppets have long skirts that reach the ground and help disguise the fact that figures have no feet. The skirts also enhance the flowing quality of the movements. The puppets have only one, two or three strings. It is only in the case of Rasdhari (dancer) that as many as nine strings are attached to the figure. Dance is life-like and acrobatic feats are also performed.
Traditionally, Kathputli is a one-lay repertoire theatre. The play Amar Singh Rathor, (a Chieftain in Mughal emperor Shahjahan's court) deals with his bravery and fight in the court. The plot of the play is very thin, and the performance is filled by a number of stock characters who appear to entertain the courtiers.
The most interesting feature of Rajasthani puppets is the use of high pitched voice of puppeteers produced by speaking through a reed made from a small piece of split bamboo, simply called boli (speech). It is equivalent of the 'squeakier' employed by puppeteers in other parts of Asia as well as in Europe and Africa.
It is a husband wife team. Wife plays on dholak (folk drum) and sings all the songs. Of these some are popular traditional folk songs of the region having no relevance to the story or the situation. Their main function is to make performance musically very rich.
Orrisa's string puppets are called Sakhi-Kundhei (companion doll). The puppets are made of light wood and like Kathputli have no legs. Long following skirts hide the legs. Five to seven strings are attached to a puppet figure and manipulate by a triangular wooden control. Costume of the puppets is similar to that of the Jatra which is the folk theatre of the region. Most of the puppet plays are based on Krishna legend. The music heavily draws on the folk musical traditions of the region.
Bommalattam (doll dance) of Tamil Nadu has two styles namely Tnajavour and Kumbakonam. These are the largest and heaviest string puppets. A puppet may be as big as four and half feet in height. The rounded figures have sculptural quality with huge multi-tiered head gears and are gorgeously costumed. In this style episodes from the two epics and puranas are performed.
 Karnataka has a highly developed string puppet tradition called Gombeatta (puppet dance). The puppet figures look like Yakshagana live actors in headdress, facial make-up, costume and jewelry. They perform regular Yakshagana plays known as prasangas (episodes) based on the two epics and the puranas.
An interesting string puppet tradition is that of Maharashtra called Kalasutri-Bahulye (threadskill doll). It is a unique tradition with figures artistically carved and painted. The tradition is almost extinct. Only one puppet group is known to perform in Pinguli village in Ratnagiri district bordering Goa.
Shadow Puppets
In traditional puppetry the tradition of shadow puppets with several regional styles is strong, inspite of the decline in recent years, and also it is perhaps the oldest. There are six recognizable traditions. These are Orissa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.
Orissa puppet figures are of small size of about 6 to 8 inches and made of deer skin. They are without any joint. They look course, but are highly stylished and abstract. Most of the figures are conceived in dramatic postures, and cut out work. In some cases, as in figures of Ravan, Sita and Hanuman, it is most dramatic. Ravan with highly abstraction heads and twenty arms looks awe-inspiring. They are held erect by the grip of a split bamboo stick which runs through the middle line with few inches extra to serve as handle for the puppeteer, a device followed in all forms of shadow puppets.
Andhra Tradition
In Andhra Pradesh, the shadow puppets are called Tolu Bommalatta (leather puppet dance). These are the largest leather puppets, most of them of human size with several joints. They are translucent and throw gorgeous colored shadows.
 It is only in Andhra shadow puppets that Mahabharat is also presented. From the Mahabharat, the most popular episodes performed are Draupadi Vastra Haran (disrobing of Draupdi), Shishupal Vadha (killing of Shishupal), Keechak Vadha (killing of Keechak), Veer Abhimanyu (Abhimanyu the warrior). It is also called Padma Vyuham. Music in this performance is is raaga-based and highly dramatic with high pitched singing. The singers and the instrumentalists stand behind the puppeteers to sing songs and recite verses at appropriate situations.
Karnataka
In Karnataka the shadow puppets are called Todale Gombe-atta. The Karnataka tradition has many similarities with that of Andhra. In Karnataka there are two type of shadow puppets- large and small. The small figures are called Chikka. Karnataka figures are also translucent and throw colour shadow.
Kerala
The shadow puppet tradition of Kerala is called Toalpava Kuthu (leather doll dance). Kerala puppets are opaque and throw black and white shadow. Many figures like that of Ravan and Sita in sitting posture with profused perforation work look gorgeous. They perform the great Tamil Ramayana by Kamban (12 century) suitably adapted and contaxtualised for a puppet performance. They also use textual material from several other sources including shalokas and dialogues from the Sanskrit play Mahanatak. Linguistically, Kerala tradition is unique in the sense that they perform the Tamil epic for Malayali audiences and the performers are Marathi speaking.
Figures
 Sculpting, carving and coloring of the string puppet figures, and incising and cutout work of shadow puppets is highly developed. Many puppet figures in all forms of puppetry are exquisite pieces of art, and reflect the heritage of the arts and crafts of the region.
The craftsmanship of glove puppet figures of Kerala, large size marionettes of Tanjavur region in Tamil Nadu and those of Andhra Pradesh, shadow puppet figures of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are of special interest. Some Puppeteers make their own figures and impart a sense of movement to their conception of the mask.
Karnataka shadow figures are of small and medium size and are translucent. These have most complex iconography, and richly add to the spectacle and theatricality of performance. Andhra figures are also translucent and perforated. Basic material is parchment which shows natural transparency; it is intensified by the perforation of certain parts, especially parts where ornaments are shown.
The figures are generally large. Infact, some like those of Ravan and Hanuman are life-size. They have greater mobility and are able to move not only their arms and hands, but also legs, which are left loosely hanging with joints. Such a construction of figures is used to great advantage in fighting scenes, when puppets are vigorously shaken by the puppeteers and are made to strike one another. Head and neck can also be moved which is joined with the trunk of the body. Puppeteers can, instead of turning the whole figure, merely turn the head, and thus a skilful manipulator gives the impression of figures constantly twisting and turning.
Figures are made by tracing the design on the hide with a pencil, a sharp nail or a knife and cut out with chisel or knife-a technique common to other puppet traditions. Normally, old puppets serve as model for tracing. However, when old puppet is not available, the figure is drawn based on puppeteers imagination and memory. While Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka figures are cut out in three quarter face and profile, Kerala ones are in profile, sitting or standing.
A set of nearly one hundred and fifty figures is required to do the Ramayana plays. More or less the same number is required for the Mahabharata plays too. Sometimes puppeteers use a single figure for more than one character. It is interesting to note that a large number of figures representing social life, military, royalty and animal world are also used in the epic plays to provide the setting. Some of these are- cobbler, toddy tapper, lady selling barrack, man with hookah, wrestler, astrologer, fortune teller, snake charmer etc. There are also animals and birds such as cow, buffalo, bull, horse, herd of sheep, goat, pea-cock, hunter with dog, hunter carrying rifle, dog hunting deer etc., to create the right kind of setting and effect.
Delineation of jewelry and costumes is the essence of iconography. This is done by perforating different type of small designs on the skin, such as circle, triangles and crossess. The next task is punching of holes in the skin in accordance with a design already drawn. These holes mainly represent jewelry.
Coloring is also very important in shadow puppets. The main colors used are red, black and green. Traditionally till the early years of this century vegetable colors are used as was the case with other puppet traditions, but now chemical dyes are used, and that makes shadows static, diminishing their flickering lyrical quality.
In iconography unique are the 'group' or 'composite' figures of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. These figures with several characters represent a well composed scene with some dramatic action. During the performance these look like a tableau, and often represent climatic moment in the story. A single puppet with ten or twelve monkey-soldiers in a composite figure represents a section of Rama's monkey army. Rama's figure cut out in a dramatic posture, holding bow and arrow in shooting position, and standing on the shoulders of Hanuman, represents the final battle scene with the large figure of Ravan projected on the other half of the screen.
The puppet figures of all the traditions have marked similarities with the performer's make-up and costume of the live traditional theatre of the region which a particular puppet form belongs to. These similarities are reflected in the design of the puppets, facial paint, costume, headdress and ornaments. Manipulation
Movement is the essence of the art of the puppetry. The manipulation of the figures therefore plays the most important role in a puppet performance. Each form of puppets has its own devices and techniques of manipulation developed in relation to the size and design of the figures, scheme of jointed limbs, performing conditions and conventions of performance.
Manipulation of the puppet is also largely determined by the verbal and musical patterns and rhythms of the form, as the movements correspond to these. Puppeteer-animators have a keen sense of rhythm and of drama. All the forms are rich in musical content and there is a most creative amalgam of folk tunes and classical melodies added to which are recitative passages. Manipulation as it is done in various puppet forms is explained below: a) Glove Puppets: The puppet figure is slipped over the puppeteer's hand. He may use various figures to control the figure, but generally the forefinger fits into the head of the puppet, the thumb serves to control one hand and the third finger controls the other. The range of movements is rather limited; but in this form since the puppeteers manipulate in full view of the audience, their facial expression also plays an important role in illuminating the movements of the puppets
b) Rod Puppets: The manipulation of large three to four feet high rod figures of West Bengal is highly theatrical. Usually there are three joints. The head is joined at the neck and both hands at the shoulders. Puppets are manipulated from below.
c) String Puppets: String puppets provide much greater scope for manipulation, and depending on the size of the figure, the scheme of joints, strings etc., great range of movements can be achieved. For instance, in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, in the case of large figure with both string and rods, great range of movements is achieved by tying strings to the head of the figure, and the other end of strings tied to a ring worn by the puppeteer like a crown.
In Rajasthani string puppets, even with one or two strings, a variety of body movements are managed such as bowing, embracing, laughing, talking and fighting. In figures like those of the Rasdhari (dancer), also called Anarkali, six to nine strings are used, and an amazing range of movements, similar to the Kathak dance are managed.
d) Shadow Puppets: Puppeteers use many devices in shadow puppets to achieve greater range of movements keeping in view the size, design, jointed limbs of the puppet figure, and size of the screen. Form the simplest mode of manipulation and limited movements in Orissa tradition, (performed by single or two puppeteers seated using small size figures without any joints), to the Andhra tradition performed by three or four standing puppeteers using large human size figures with jointed limbs, one can witness a great range of movements.
The puppeteers in Andhra and Karnataka traditions exploit full the potential of the translucent figures. They create variations in the density of shadow cast by the puppets by changing the distance from the screen. The shadows are made sharper or partially diffused. Variations in pressure that the puppeteers put on placing the figure on the screen also changes the density of the shadows. Variation shadow helps in creating appropriate emotional condition, and imparts a sense of drama to the show.
A sense of rhythm, gracefulness and beauty in movements is achieved by the puppeteers who have made their own figures. The puppet figures are designed and cut out keeping in view the movements, as is the case with the conception and design of the mask. While manipulating the figures, following the rhythmic beat, puppeteers constantly move their legs and body which enlivens the movements of the puppets. Tableau
An interesting aspect of manipulation is the tableau formation in all the shadow puppet traditions. In the Kerala shadow puppets, large screen and slow pace of performance with minimal movements is utilized for tableau formations. Dramatically composed scenes with props such as palaces, temples and trees are often frozen on the screen. In the Ravanachhayya of Orissa most charming tableau is formed in the scene when Sita is in Ashok Vatika (Ravana's Garden) sitting under a tree with two demonesses guarding her. Hanuman is sitting on the tree in a pose as if waiting to jump and to give her Rama's message and his ring as a sign of recognition. Ravana is also there in the composition making advances to Sita.
Migration
Puppeteers being itinerant performers, the art of puppetry follows a migratory course. Migrations have also occurred when the patronage ahs been extended to puppeteers by kings. With so many regional traditions prevalent in the country migration of puppeteers from one region to the other is an interesting subject of study in itself. Migration is so integral and common to puppetry that few forms can be said to be totally indigenous. Due to the improvisatory character of puppet stage with easily portable or locally borrowed material, it is easy for the puppet groups, (which in most cases are family based, except in Kerala) to travel, from one place to another to give performances. The performers lead a nomadic life except in Kerala where there is a permanent structure called "Koothu Mandap" built within the Bhagavati temple compound for shadow puppet performances.
Modern Puppetry
In the context of ancient and rich puppet tradition in India the situation in modern puppetry is most depressing. In Delhi there is practically not a single active puppet group. The first phase of evolution of modern puppetry in the early 50s was part of the cultural and artistic resurgence of the post-independence era. A few groups sprang up in a big cities like Delhi, Calcutta and Bombay.
Along with the individual puppeteers and puppet groups, some institutions involved in the promotion of arts also encouraged puppetry. Most of the work was done in Kathputli, the string puppets of Rajasthan which have new themes and involve traditional puppeteers. Finding new opportunity of work, some fifty families of puppeteers from Rajasthan had migrated to Delhi, and settled on the outskirts of the city. They are still there, and demanding rehabilitation.
In Delhi, Bharatiya Natya Sangh (Indian Centre of International Theatre Institute, Unesco) took initiative under the inspiration of the late Kamala Devi Chattopadhyaya, who remained a great promoter of traditional arts and crafts all her life. A few plays were done with new themes in Rajasthani string puppets (Kathputli) involving traditional puppeteers and under the guidance of Inder Razdan, a scholar of traditional theatre crafts. With financial support to the Natya Sangh from the government, Razdan also made large collection of puppets, masks, headgears, costume and other items of theatre crafts which are displayed in a crafts museum in New Delhi. Bhartiya Kala Kendra, another cultural institution devoted to the training in music and dance, took interests in puppetry and some plays were produced under its auspices in Kathputli style.
During this period most serious work was done by the late Devilal Samar in Kathputli at Udaipur with his institution called Lok Kala Mandal. He maintained a troup and participated in several international puppet festivals. He organized a two national puppet festivals in the sixties. His institution maintains a museum displaying puppets, masks, musical instruments, costume and other items of theatre crafts. Influenced by European modern puppet traditions, he introduced new themes, and experimented in making puppets in new designs.
Central Sangeet Natak Akademi, New delhi under its scheme of promotion of traditional arts, have been sponsoring puppet performances and puppet festivals. Akademi also has a large collection of puppets; small part of which is displayed in its galleries.
One of the modern puppeteers whose work is significant is Dadi Padumjee. He worked with the Delhi-based Sri Ram Centre for Arts and Culture, and experimented in Kathputli. He now has his own group called 'Ishara'. His collaboration with the modern dancer Asted Deboo's choreographic pieces dancing with his large puppets and masks, is unique in modern puppetry.
Raghunath Goswami in Calcutta experimented with rod puppets drawing inspiration from the tradition of Putul Nach, the Rod Puppets of his state , West Bengal. Another Calcutta based active puppeteer is Suresh Datta. His production of string puppets Ramayana is most popular and colorful. Meher Contractor has been working at Ahmedabad with the famous Darpan Akademi of Performing Arts. She has experimented with the Andhra style of shadow puppets and created a production 'Rustam Sohrab'.
It is regrettable that except for publicizing governmental developmental plans by the Song and Drama Division Units at the Centre and the states, puppetry has not been utilized for educational purposes. It is only Literacy House at Lucknow and Shreyas Foundation at Ahmedabad which have used puppets for educational purposes. Television has also not shown interest in using puppetry both for intraction and entertainment. Television in several Eropean countries is exploiting full potential of puppetry for educational and entertainment programs.
Decline and Revival
It is paradoxical that while it is during the last three decades or so the puppet traditions all over the country have been discovered, national and regional festivals organized, monographs and books published with the central and state Academies supporting their revival; it is also during this period that the tradition has declined and many of them are on the point of extinction. Thousands of puppets specially from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka have been sold to tourists, museums and research workers and in both these state, thousands of puppeteers have given up performing and taken to selling plastic and stainless steel utensil in exchange of old clothes as venders. Old puppeteers are dying and younger members in the family to more lucrative professions. Also, there are no craftsmen and puppeteers who can make puppets. Material is scarce and costly. In Kerala, where temples have been the patron for all these centuries, now lesser number of temples have active puppet play-houses. Further, they now sponsor lesser number of puppet groups and for lesser number of days.
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